Facts → provision → structured answer

Answer Templates.

Classify the conduct first. Then copy the correct legal skeleton and replace every bracket with facts from the problem.

ACL s 18

Misleading or deceptive conduct

01

何时调用这个模板

出现广告、销售陈述、包装、图片、沉默、半真话、意见、免责声明或整体印象可能错误时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether [X's conduct] in trade or commerce was misleading or deceptive or likely to mislead or deceive the relevant audience contrary to ACL s 18.

Section 18 applies objectively to conduct in trade or commerce. The court identifies the relevant audience, determines the dominant message in context and asks whether an ordinary or reasonable member of that class would be led into error. Intention and fault are not required.

中文理解

s 18采用客观判断。先确认行为发生在trade or commerce中，再识别目标受众、整体语境及主导信息，最后判断相关群体中的普通或合理成员是否会被带入错误。无需证明欺骗意图或过错。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 精确写出conduct：谁在何时通过什么媒介说了、展示了或隐瞒了什么。
  2. 确定target audience；不要自动假设为高度专业或极端粗心的人。
  3. 用一句话写出dominant message，而不是重复题目原话。
  4. 列出支持误导和反对误导的事实，包括醒目程度、语境、免责声明和受众知识。
  5. 如主张s 236赔偿，另证原告依赖、因果关系及可识别损失。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • ACL s 4 future matters
  • ACL s 29 specific representation
  • ACL ss 30-31 land/employment
  • ACL s 236 damages
  • ACL s 232 injunction

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

[X] engaged in conduct in trade or commerce by [precise conduct].

Viewed in context, the dominant message conveyed to [target audience] was that [message].

A reasonable member of that audience would likely be led into error because [facts supporting error]. [Disclaimer/context] is [insufficient/sufficient] because [reason].

Accordingly, [X] likely [contravened/did not contravene] s 18. [Y] may seek [appropriate remedy], subject to proving [causation/loss/standing].

ACL s 4 + s 18/s 29

Future matters

02

何时调用这个模板

出现‘将会、预计、保证以后、未来盈利、未来供货或未来维修’等预测或承诺时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether [the future representation] was made without reasonable grounds and is therefore treated as misleading under ACL s 4.

Where a person makes a representation about a future matter without reasonable grounds, the representation is taken to be misleading. The representor bears the evidential burden of showing reasonable grounds, assessed at the time the statement was made.

中文理解

如果陈述人对未来事项作出陈述但当时没有合理依据，s 4会把该陈述视为误导。陈述人需提出证据证明作出陈述时存在合理依据；后来结果没有实现是重要事实，但不是唯一判断。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 把未来事项与当前事实陈述分开。
  2. 说明陈述作出时掌握了哪些资料、计划或能力。
  3. 判断依据是否具体、可靠且与预测相称。
  4. 再把s 4结论带回s 18或具体陈述条款。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • ACL s 18
  • ACL s 29
  • ACL s 37 business opportunities
  • Contractual promise

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

[X] represented that [future event/result]. This was a future matter for s 4 because [reason].

At the time, [X] [had/did not have] reasonable grounds, namely [evidence or absence of evidence].

The representation is therefore [taken/not taken] to be misleading and should be analysed under [s 18/s 29/s 37].

ACL s 29

Specific false representations

03

何时调用这个模板

陈述涉及质量、标准、价值、等级、新旧、价格、产地、用途、性能、赞助认可、关联关系、维修零件或消费者权利时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether [X], in trade or commerce and in connection with the supply or promotion of goods or services, made a false or misleading representation within s 29(1)([paragraph]).

Section 29 targets listed categories of representation. The statement must fall within a particular paragraph and be false or misleading. Unlike s 18, contravention can support civil penalties and a corresponding offence provision.

中文理解

s 29只针对列明类别，因此必须写出具体分项并证明陈述属于该类别且虚假或误导。与s 18不同，s 29可能产生民事罚款及相应刑事责任。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 逐个陈述分类，不要把所有陈述合并。
  2. 写明对应分项，例如quality、price、origin或consumer rights。
  3. 比较实际事实与陈述内容。
  4. 同时分析s 18，但分别写明后果。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • ACL s 18
  • ACL s 4
  • ACL s 30 land
  • ACL s 31 employment
  • Chapter 4 offence

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

By stating [exact statement], [X] represented that [meaning].

This concerns [s 29 category] and was [false/misleading] because the true position was [fact].

[X] therefore likely contravened s 29(1)([paragraph]) and also [may/may not] have contravened s 18. The available public and private consequences differ between those provisions.

ACL s 20

Equitable unconscionability

04

何时调用这个模板

事实显示一方因年龄、疾病、语言、情感依赖、贫困、无经验或其他情况无法作出有效判断，而另一方明知并利用时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether [X] engaged in unconscionable conduct within the unwritten law, contrary to ACL s 20.

The claimant ordinarily establishes a special disadvantage seriously affecting judgment, actual or constructive knowledge by the stronger party, and unconscientious exploitation of that disadvantage. A hard bargain or inequality alone is insufficient.

中文理解

通常需证明：弱势方存在严重影响判断能力的special disadvantage；强势方实际知道或应当知道；并进行了违背良知的利用。单纯议价不平等、价格很差或商业压力通常不够。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 具体描述special disadvantage如何影响判断。
  2. 用事实证明对方知道或应当知道。
  3. 指出利用行为，而不仅是交易结果很差。
  4. 与更广的s 21分开分析。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • ACL s 21
  • ACL s 22 factors
  • ACL s 50
  • Contract/undue influence

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

[Y] suffered a special disadvantage because [facts], which seriously affected [Y's] ability to judge [transaction].

[X] knew or ought to have known this because [facts demonstrating knowledge].

[X] exploited the disadvantage by [conduct]. This goes beyond a hard bargain because [reason].

Accordingly, [X] likely [did/did not] engage in unconscionable conduct under s 20.

ACL ss 21-22

Statutory unconscionability

05

何时调用这个模板

商业行为整体极端不公平、利用弱势、使用不必要条件、拒绝协商、隐瞒信息或施加不当压力，但未必达到衡平法special disadvantage时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether [X's] conduct, in all the circumstances, was against conscience within ACL s 21, having regard to the non-exhaustive s 22 factors.

Section 21 is not confined by equitable doctrine. The court evaluates the totality of conduct connected with the supply or acquisition of goods or services, using s 22 factors such as bargaining strength, unnecessary conditions, comprehension, pressure, price, alternatives, disclosure and good faith.

中文理解

s 21不受衡平法门槛限制。法院对与商品或服务供应/取得相关的整体行为作价值判断，并参考s 22中的议价能力、不必要条件、理解能力、压力、价格、替代选择、披露及善意等因素。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 按s 22因素组织事实，不要只写‘很不公平’。
  2. 同时写有利于被告的商业理由和替代选择。
  3. 说明行为整体为何达到against conscience的高门槛。
  4. 区分单个苛刻条款与整个交易过程。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • ACL s 20
  • ACL s 50
  • ACL ss 23-24 unfair terms
  • ACL s 18

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

The relevant course of conduct was [summary]. The following s 22 factors point toward unconscionability: [factors and facts].

Against that, [X] may rely on [legitimate commercial justification, disclosure, negotiation or alternatives].

Considering the totality, the conduct likely [does/does not] cross the high threshold of being against conscience under s 21 because [reason].

ACL ss 23-27

Unfair contract term

06

何时调用这个模板

出现标准格式合同中的单方变价、自动续约、广泛免责、单方终止、无上限赔偿、限制退款或只约束一方的条款时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether [the term] in a standard-form consumer or small-business contract is unfair under ss 23-24.

Coverage requires a consumer or small-business contract that is standard form. A term is unfair only if it creates significant imbalance, is not reasonably necessary to protect legitimate interests, and would cause detriment if applied or relied on. Transparency and the contract as a whole must be considered.

中文理解

先证明合同属于consumer或small-business contract且为standard form。随后必须同时满足三项：显著失衡；并非保护合法利益所合理必要；适用或依赖时造成损害。还需考虑透明度、合同整体及s 26排除。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 先写coverage及standard form，不能直接跳到不公平。
  2. 逐项分析s 24三要素。
  3. 检查main subject matter、upfront price或法律要求条款排除。
  4. 说明2023年后提出、适用或依赖该条款的后果。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • ACL s 26 exclusions
  • ACL s 21
  • Contract construction
  • Compensation and penalty consequences

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

The contract is a [consumer/small-business] contract because [facts] and appears standard form under s 27 because [facts].

The term creates significant imbalance by [effect]. It is presumed not reasonably necessary unless [X] proves [legitimate interest and proportionality]. It would cause detriment by [financial/non-financial effect].

Although [transparent/not transparent], and considering the contract as a whole, the term likely [is/is not] unfair. Section 26 [does/does not] exclude review because [reason].

ACL ss 51-59

Consumer guarantees - goods

07

何时调用这个模板

商品有质量、安全、耐用、用途、描述、样品、所有权、零件或明示保修问题时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether [supplier/manufacturer] failed to comply with the applicable consumer guarantee in ACL s [section].

The claimant must establish supply to a consumer, identify the correct supplier or manufacturer guarantee, and prove non-compliance. The statutory guarantees are distinct and may overlap; acceptable quality under s 54 considers fitness, appearance, defects, safety and durability in context.

中文理解

先证明向consumer供应goods，再选择正确的supplier或manufacturer guarantee，并证明不合规。各项保证相互独立但可重叠；s 54 acceptable quality需结合语境判断通常用途、外观、缺陷、安全及耐用性。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 先做ACL s 3 consumer测试及resupply/use-up排除。
  2. 逐项选择s 51-59，不要笼统写‘商品有问题’。
  3. 区分supplier与manufacturer承担的保证。
  4. 最后进入s 259-274救济分类。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • ACL s 3
  • Auction/private sale
  • ACL s 64/64A
  • ACL ss 259-274 remedies
  • Pt 3-5 safety defect

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

[Y] acquired the goods as a consumer under s 3 because [threshold limb] and no exclusion applies.

[X] was the [supplier/manufacturer]. The relevant guarantee is s [section], which requires [rule].

The goods failed that guarantee because [facts applied to each criterion]. [Defect disclosure/abnormal use/auction] [does/does not] affect liability.

The appropriate remedy depends on [major/non-major failure and defendant].

ACL ss 60-62

Consumer guarantees - services

08

何时调用这个模板

服务做得不专业、未达到披露用途或期望结果、或在没有约定时间时拖延过久。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether the supplier failed to provide services with due care and skill, fitness for disclosed purpose or result, or within a reasonable time under ss 60-62.

Section 60 requires due care and skill. Section 61 requires reasonable fitness for a disclosed purpose or desired result where reliance is reasonable. Section 62 supplies a reasonable-time guarantee only if the contract does not determine time.

中文理解

s 60要求合理注意与技能；s 61在消费者披露用途或期望结果并合理依赖时，要求服务合理适合实现该目标；s 62仅在合同没有确定时间时补充reasonable time保证。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 区分技术履行问题、用途/结果问题及时间问题。
  2. 对s 61写明消费者如何披露和依赖。
  3. 检查architect/engineer、business transport/storage等排除。
  4. 进入ss 267-270判断major failure。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • ACL s 3
  • ACL s 64/64A
  • CCA s 139A recreational services
  • ACL s 275
  • ACL ss 267-270

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

[Y] acquired the services as a consumer because [facts]. [X] supplied [service].

Section [60/61/62] required [specific standard]. The service failed because [facts].

[Reliance/exclusion/agreed timing] [supports/limits] the claim because [reason].

The remedy is governed by ss 267-270 and depends on whether the failure is major or remediable.

ACL ss 259-274

Major failure and remedies

09

何时调用这个模板

已经证明consumer guarantee failure，需要决定谁可以要求repair、refund、replacement、termination或damages时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether the failure is major or cannot be remedied, and which statutory remedy is available against the supplier or manufacturer.

Major failure includes a reasonable consumer not acquiring had the failure been known, significant departure from description or sample, substantial unfitness not easily remedied promptly, failure of a disclosed purpose not easily remedied promptly, or unsafe goods/services. Non-major remediable failures generally give the supplier the first opportunity to remedy.

中文理解

Major failure包括：合理消费者若事先知道便不会购买；严重偏离描述/样品；严重不适合通常用途且不能轻易及时修复；不适合披露用途且不能轻易及时修复；或不安全。Non-major且可补救的failure通常先由supplier选择补救。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 先分类，再写救济；不能先假设refund。
  2. 区分goods与services。
  3. 区分supplier remedy与manufacturer direct claim。
  4. 另写foreseeable consequential loss及拒收限制。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • Rejection period and restrictions
  • Connected services s 265
  • Manufacturer claim ss 271-272
  • Indemnity s 274

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

The failure is [major/non-major] because [apply statutory category].

Against the supplier, [Y] may [reject and choose refund/replacement; keep and claim reduction in value; require remedy first; terminate services] under s [section].

[Y] may additionally recover reasonably foreseeable loss of [loss], subject to causation and mitigation. Any direct manufacturer claim is separately governed by ss 271-272.

ACL Part 3-5, ss 9 and 138-150

Manufacturer safety defect

10

何时调用这个模板

商品造成身体伤害、私人财产损坏，且问题可能来自设计、制造、包装、说明或警告时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether goods supplied in trade or commerce had a safety defect under s 9 that caused loss recoverable under ss 138-141 from a statutory manufacturer.

Goods have a safety defect if they are not as safe as persons generally are entitled to expect, considering marketing, packaging, warnings, expected use, time of supply and circumstances. Liability is strict but defect, causation, manufacturer status and a statutory loss category remain necessary.

中文理解

商品未达到公众一般有权期待的安全程度时存在safety defect。判断考虑营销、包装、警告、合理预期用途、供应时间及其他情况。该责任不要求证明疏忽，但仍须证明manufacturer身份、缺陷、因果关系及法定可赔损失类别。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 先识别广义manufacturer，包括品牌方及部分进口商。
  2. 具体说明公众有权期待的安全程度。
  3. 分别处理伤者、后续受损人及私人财产。
  4. 检查s 142抗辩及s 143时效。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • Consumer guarantees
  • Negligence
  • ACL s 142 defences
  • ACL s 143 limitation
  • ACL s 150 non-exclusion

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

[X] is a manufacturer under s 7 because [maker/brand owner/importer facts].

The goods had a safety defect under s 9 because [marketing/design/warning/use facts] meant they were less safe than persons generally were entitled to expect.

The defect caused [injury/damage], recoverable under s [138/139/140/141].

No s 142 defence appears because [reason], and the claim is within s 143. [X] is therefore likely liable.

ACL s 224(1)(c)-(f) and remedy provisions

Accessorial liability

11

何时调用这个模板

董事、经理、员工、广告代理或其他人没有亲自作出全部违法行为，但帮助、诱导、参与或共谋时。

ISSUE + RULE

The issue is whether [X] was knowingly concerned in, aided, induced or otherwise became involved in the principal contravention.

An accessory must know the essential facts constituting the contravention and intentionally participate, but need not know that those facts are legally unlawful. Mere position, negligence or failure to inquire is ordinarily insufficient.

中文理解

Accessory必须知道构成主要违法的关键事实并有意参与，但无需知道这些事实在法律上违法。仅仅担任职位、疏忽或没有调查，通常不足以成立帮助者责任。

Application order · 套用顺序

  1. 先完整证明principal contravention。
  2. 逐项写accessory实际知道哪些关键事实。
  3. 指出积极帮助、诱导或参与行为。
  4. 区分公司归责、个人直接责任及accessorial liability。

Cross-check · 还要检查

  • CCA ss 139B-139C attribution
  • Direct employee liability
  • Yorke v Lucas
  • Productivity Partners v ACCC

COPYABLE ANSWER SKELETON

The principal contravention was [contravention by principal].

[X] knew the essential facts, namely [facts known], as shown by [evidence].

[X] intentionally participated by [aid/inducement/knowing concern]. This is more than mere office or inaction because [reason].

[X] is therefore likely [involved/not involved] in the contravention.